Week 6

This week's readings consist of 4 main categories: TASK Analysis, SKILL Hierarchies, Reading FUZZIES & Learning OUTCOMES.

Task Analysis

I believe everyone knows what is a task. The simplest simplest definition can be that it is like a job/assignment given to you and it consist of steps. For instead, "Mother asked me bake for tomorrow's party". And since a task consists of steps, there should be a beginning, a middle and an ending (the outcome). One step leads to other, finally achieving the task. In the example given above, I have to decide on what to bake, determine what ingredients will be needed, bring them out etc...and finally, put the cookies into the oven and I'll get freshly baked cookies.So that summarizes what is a task.

But what is task analysis? When I read the title, I supposed it meant analyzing the task. Lets see if I am right. Firstly, before we start the task analysis, we'll need to do the following

1. Drafting a Task List
o To make a list of all the task that make up the job
o E.g. paper work, socializing, interaction
o Begin each task listing with a “doing word” such as clean, assemble, interact
o This is a way to tell whether the item described is a task or just a subject matter

2. Task Detailing
After listing the tasks, list the steps and decisions involved in performing each of the tasks on the list

Each task should answer the following:
(a) When is the task performed (what triggers he initiation of the task)
(b) How is the task performed (what are the steps followed and the decisions made while performing the task)
(c) How would you know when you are done (when the task has been satisfactory completed?)

There are 2 methods that you can go about doing a task analysis:
Method one: List and Method Two: Flowchart.
The latter is a better method as it makes it easier to read for the planner also also clearly shows the alternatives to be followed when decisions are involved. Not only that, it also reveals where information is still missing. There are however 2 requirements to construct a flowchart. Using a Rectangle (to depict actions) & a Diamond (to depict decisions).

Personally, I'd choose method 2 because I'm kind of a lenthgy writer. I prefer things to be spelt out/planned out clearly. It allows me to make mistakes or miss out important details. But of course, it is also time consuming to make one that is so detailed. Sometimes, the lazy worm in me takes over, and I'll do a list instead. A list is the most basic requirement which i believe everyone has experience constructing one. For girls who bake, the recipe is akin to a list!

And of course, after you have got the components you’ll need; you’ll still need to brainstorm about the skills needed. This includes going through each step in your analysis and think about the skills needed to complete each step. This can be demonstrated through the same example mentioned about. E.g. in the step of preparing the cookie, the skills involved will be sifting the flour, weighing the butter, sugar, vanilla essence and whisking the batter etc. Thus, not only do you need to list your steps out, you’ll also need to derive the skills needed at each step to ensure that you do not miss out important details that need to be covered.


Skills Hierarchies

Just as I have mentioned, we will need to derive the skills required at each step. So next, we'll zoom into skills hierarchies. By the word "hierarchy", we know that it represents a relationship; relationships between skills. Some skills need to be taught before others, whereas some are mutually exclusive. The following considerations will help one to construct the skill hierarchy:

1. What should I teach first?
2. What should be the sequence of modules thereafter?
3. Are there skills that must be learned before other skills can be attempted?
4. Are there sequencing options that can be left to the learner?

One important point to note would be the phrasing of your skills hierarchy. Use words like can, should, to denote ability. E.g. Learners can construct a mindmap on their own.

As I have just mentioned, there are 2 types of skill teaching.
1. When one skill has to be learned/taught before another
- This can be illustrated with the baking example. To be able to weigh the correct quantity of flour needed; you need to know how to read the weighing scale first, before you can weigh the correct quantity need.
- Another example can be; you must learn to crawl before you can learn to walk.
- For this type of skills, it will be represented in the hierarchy as a bottom up structure; with the first skill branching to the second subsequent skill from the bottom

2. When it doesn't matter which skill is being taught first
- E.g. You can bake cookies and sell the product. These 2 skills are mutually exclusive. baking and selling. You do not need to know how to bake before you can sell, vice versa.
- Such skills are represented by having the two skills side by side, branching up to a common point.

Of course you'll need to refer to the skills from your task analyses to construct this skills hierarchy. Consider the pairs of skills and question their relationship. Do they belong to skill type 1 or 2. Then draft you hierarchy accordingly and most importantly, nothing is good enough unless you realize it. So test your hierarchy and adjust accordingly.


Recognizing Fuzzies/Goal Analysis
And of course, it is not enough to just be able to construct your skill hierarchy from your task analysis. You'll need to recognize abstractions from your task analysis. This will be the stage of Goal Analysis. However, before that, we'll need to be able to distinguish an abstraction from one that is not. This is called the Fuzzy Watching Practice. Akin to Star Watching; Fuzzy Watching Practice when we try to recognize an abstraction. Just like during star watching, you determine what type of stars are there etc. Examples of abstractions can be attitudes or general concepts such as patriotism, love. To distinguish an abstraction from a performance, I think the "Hey dad test" is a good one. For e.g. "Hey dad let me show you that I can "ride a bicycle"..Riding a bicycle is a direct behavior and is thus not an abstraction.

here's the definitions needed...
1. WHAT IS A GOAL?
- A statement describing a broad or abstract intent, state or condition.
- A goal analysis is useful when a goal exists that is important to achieve or to improve for the better

2. WHAT IS A PERFORMANCE?
- An activity that is directly visible or audible or directly assessable.
- An invisible or internal activity can be considered a performance if it is directly assessable. Thus a single behavior will indicate the presence of the performance.

Outcomes of Learning
Finally, after constructing your skill hierarchy, task analysis and recognizing abstractions (goal analysis), you will need to determine the outcomes you will achieve. These are classified into 4 categories.

1. Verbal Skills
From the word, verbal, we take its literal meaning as being saying. Thus once a skill is taught, you should be able to state/say it. However, mere stating is not enough and true learning will only be shown through demonstration of understanding what is taught. i.e. meaningful feedback. For example; being able recite the lyrics of a song or listing the steps to take your temperature.

2. Intellectual Skills
This is the demonstration of Knowing HOW - to demonstrate. E.g. applying what you have learned in math, you display intellectual skills by being able to do substractions and additions. It shows your ability to realize what you have been taught; to carry out these actions instead of mere stating them.

3. Cognitive Strategies
This involves the operations of the mind. How your mind works to guide your process of learning, remembering and thinking.

4. Attitudes
The affective domain - Feelings. I believe that everything involves this domain. We all know that emotions affect human performances. Attitudes can be classified into a few main categories. They can be attitudes preferred in social interactions (e.g. racial tolerance) OR attitudes of positive preferences (e.g. like listening to rnb) OR attitudes pertaining to citizenship (e.g. love for a country). At the same time, attitudes are related to values. Because you value thriftiness, you will develop the attitude of saving. But while values are more general in nature, attitudes are more specifically oriented toward particular preferences.

5. Motor Skills
These are the skills learned in connection with common activities.


Yup. Pretty lengthy and dense reflection.
I'll leave it for now ((:

Assignment THREE (edited)

The last of the assignments..

Number THREE.
my group decided upon the cab-drivers case study.
did some editing after Mr Low's comments.
Not too sure it's good thought.. but..

here is it.

*click on it to view larger image*

Under the problem model, the problem discussed is in relation to bad driving habits and bad conduct of the cab drivers. For a record, cab drivers receive four times more traffic bookings or warnings than car drivers. The offenses committed include speeding, cutting across lanes dangerously, sudden braking and changing of lanes, overcharging/touting and being rude to customers.

This problem is backed with statistics provided by the cab companies. For instance, Comfort cab itself has sacked 17 of its drivers and issued 900 warning letters in 2008. Tibs on the other hand, has issued nine warning letters to their drivers. Companies have also sent their drivers to road safety courses and Comfort has sent about 150 of its accident-prone drivers whereas Tibs has sent 20 of its drivers on a "pay-for-their-own" basis as an additional deterrent.

The cause of the problem (bad driving habits of cabbies) is due to ineffective learning. This is reflected clearly in the first part of the case whereby evidence shows that there is a persisting problem of repeated offenses. This resulted in an increased in number of punishments/deterrents. For instance as mentioned above, increase in number of termination of contracts and issuing of warning letters by cab companies.

As a form of deterrent, most companies have demerit systems, bonus reduction, reduction of rental rebates, fines in place as part of their measures to curb the problem. Some companies even go to the extent of having employees pay for their own refresher courses as a form of further deterrence. These measures made use of the concept of Behaviorism whereby the "educator" (i.e. employer/taxi company) punishes the "learner" (i.e. employee/taxi drivers) for making mistakes and to further deter them from committing the same mistakes. At the same time, companies also provide additional driver refresher courses and road safety courses, as a way of reinforcing the necessary rules and requirements drivers should abide to.

However, despite the presence of existing instructions, trainings and education offered by the respective taxi companies, the problem of bad driving habits continue to persist. Here, it reveals the Disruptive Model. Yes, the problem can be solved by instructing or educating but there remains a gap that renders these existing instructions and education ineffective. The goal of the instructional system is supposed to reduce the rate cab drivers are committing offenses. However, despite the presence of education and instruction, the goal is still not achieved effectively. In this case, there is a disparity such that the amount of instruction/education given is not proportionate to the improvement of the situation. Thus, it can be seen that the situation continues to persist/worsen with drivers not learning the rules, thereby resulting in a discrepancy. This gap is an instructional need, and can be used for the design and development of instruction.

In an attempt to achieve the goal and to bridge the gap, we have come up with the following objectives.

Learning objectives:

(1) "While discharging his/her duty, the taxi driver values and espouses the lives of commuters and other road users”

(Enabling objectives)
- When driving, taxi drivers drive within the speed limit and observe traffic safety rules.

- When changing lanes, taxi drivers indicate his/her intention by giving out signals.


Behavioral objectives:

(1) “While servicing as a driver, taxi drivers practice courtesy to other road users and conforms to traffic rules"

(Enabling objectives)
- When picking up passengers, taxi drivers indicate his/her intention by turning on the hazard light

- When switching lanes, taxi drivers indicate his/her intention by turning on the indicator light.


(2) “While discharging his/her duty, taxi drivers practice courtesy and friendliness to commuters who board the taxi".

(Enabling objectives)
- When passengers board the taxi, the taxi driver greets the passenger with a smile.

- When passengers alight from the taxi, the taxi driver bids the passenger farewell.


Performance objectives:

(1) "When discharging his/her duty, the taxi driver recognizes the dangers of reckless driving and their dire consequences".

(Enabling objectives)
- The taxi driver stays within the speed limit of the road.

- The taxi driver gives way to other motorists.

- When picking up passengers, the taxi driver slows down the vehicle early.


Last but not least, additional recommendations should be given to strike equilibrium between recommendations and deterrents. Other than deterrents/punishments, educators can reward drivers who have a clean record. This gives them a sense of ownership and attachment which will help boost their confidence and improve learning abilities. Besides, there can also be additional courses on service conduct and educating the commuters. Educating the commuters is as important as educating the drivers. Both have to play a part.

Assignment THREE

The last of the assignments..

Number THREE.
here is it. my group decided upon the cab-drivers case study:

*click on it to view larger image*

Under the problem model, the problem discussed is in relation to bad driving habits and bad conduct of the cab drivers. For a record, cab drivers receive four times more traffic bookings or warnings than car drivers. The offenses committed include speeding, cutting across lanes dangerously, sudden braking and changing of lanes, overcharging/touting and being rude to customers.

This problem is backed with statistics provided by the cab companies. For instance, Comfort cab itself has sacked 17 of its drivers and issued 900 warning letters in 2008. Tibs on the other hand, has issued nine warning letters to their drivers. Companies have also sent their drivers to road safety courses and Comfort has sent about 150 of its accident-prone drivers whereas Tibs has sent 20 of its drivers on a "pay-for-their-own" basis as an additional deterrent.

The cause of the problem (bad driving habits of cabbies) is due to ineffective learning. This is reflected clearly in the first part of the case whereby evidence shows that there is a persisting problem of repeated offenses. This resulted in an increased in number of punishments/deterrents. For instance as mentioned above, increase in number of termination of contracts and issuing of warning letters by cab companies.

As a form of deterrent, most companies have demerit systems, bonus reduction, reduction of rental rebates, fines in place as part of their measures to curb the problem. Some companies even go to the extent of having employees pay for their own refresher courses as a form of further deterrence. These measures made use of the concept of Behaviorism whereby the "educator" (i.e. employer/taxi company) punishes the "learner" (i.e. employee/taxi drivers) for making mistakes and to further deter them from committing the same mistakes. At the same time, companies also provide additional driver refresher courses and road safety courses, as a way of reinforcing the necessary rules and requirements drivers should abide to.

However, despite the presence of existing instructions, trainings and education offered by the respective taxi companies, the problem of bad driving habits continue to persist. Here, it reveals the Disruptive Model. Yes, the problem can be solved by instructing or educating but there remains a gap that renders these existing instructions and education ineffective. The goal of the instructional system is supposed to reduce the rate cab drivers are committing offenses. However, despite the presence of education and instruction, the goal is still not achieved effectively. In this case, there is a disparity such that the amount of instruction/education given is not proportionate to the improvement of the situation. Thus, it can be seen that the situation continues to persist/worsen with drivers not learning the rules, thereby resulting in a discrepancy. This gap is an instructional need, and can be used for the design and development of instruction.

In an attempt to achieve the goal and to bridge the gap, we have come up with the following learning/behavioral objectives. Firstly, under "superordinate relationship", there are two objectives. The learning objective is “Drivers need to learn the dangers of driving recklessly and to know that the consequences of reckless driving can be dire (e.g. accidents)”. This objective is deemed most important, as it is the basis for the actions of drivers. While the behavioral objective being “Drivers recognize the dangers of their bad driving habits and stop driving recklessly”. Having drivers be aware and carry out this behavior would then solve the problem and thus achieve the goal statement. Secondly, in "coordinate relationships", there is the learning objective “Drivers have to learn to value the precious lives and safety of passengers and others” and behavioral objective “Drivers conform to traffic rules by not cutting lanes, braking suddenly etc”. Thirdly, the behavioral objective “Drivers treat their customers better by being more polite, courteous and friendlier” is listed under "subordinate relationship" as safety is seen to be more important than good service.

Last but not least, additional recommendations should be given to strike equilibrium between recommendations and deterrents. Other than deterrents/punishments, educators can reward drivers who have a clean record. This gives them a sense of ownership and attachment which will help boost their confidence and improve learning abilities. Besides, there can also be additional courses on service conduct and educating the commuters. Educating the commuters is as important as educating the drivers. Both have to play a part.

Tutorial TWO (week 6)

hellohello!
here's what we did in class for week 6...
Learning design (adjusted)

*click on it to view larger image*

Week FOUR

Hello Hello!
Sorry for this outdated post…
here’s my reflection for Lecture 3 and the readings.

I thought the lecture was pretty concise, covering 4 main points (3W,1H). I just summarize them.
Basically they are…

WHAT is Learning Design?
We can tell from the two words that it meant designing learning experiences, which involves a sequence of activities and interactions. It is an alternative to Instructional Design (ID: which I’ll touch on below) and is implement with the use of ICT. Thereby creating a platform for learning process to take place through interactions. 3 important elements have to be present when designing a learning experience:

▲ Resources: which is a source of supply, support or aid to the learners, one that they can rely on to drawn help from. (e.g. e-books, websites)

❍ Support

❑ Tasks: a piece of work assigned to the learner (e.g. to learn how to bake a cheesecake.)

The kind of task assigned, the flow of activities to emulate prescribed instructional strategies for different kinds of learning content is vital when designing a learning experience. Learning is not a linear process, but rather it works in an iterative circle. It requires refinement overtime.

WHY design learning?
With the emerging nature of learning, the pace it revolutionize and changes, there is an increased need to improve/revise learning design to better suit the present context. At the same time it is an improvement over ID. Due to the few shortcomings of ID such as its rigidity, inflexibility and time lag, learning design is developed. However, it does not replace ID entirely but instead, incorporated several elements of ID to make it more viable. Most importantly, design learning places the onus of learning onto the learner, allowing them to learn independently instead of just spoon-feeding.

How to design learning?
- Review the current course structure.
- Analyze the course.
- Comparison of teaching techniques.
- Compare course formats.
- Specify final course format.
- Not a linear process.
- Outlining the overall learning activity and associated learning outcomes.
- Listing potential mini activities.
- Outline contextual details in terms of resource and constraints.
- Map mini-activities to potential tools and resources.

WHAT is effective design?
Basically the new method of e-learning concentrates on articulating, developing, sequencing and iterating learning activities and tasks to help learners achieve desired learning outcomes. Hence, as “educators”, we should have the flexibility to alter learning activities and tasks to achieve the best possible learning effect. We need to realize that there is no 100% flawless and perfect learning design but we can optimize one’s learning experience by modifying and adapting to the related context. After all, we need to consider the different learning context, abilities of learners etc before fine-tuning our learning design.

In additional..
That we as educators, need to cater to learners’ needs. We should provide motivating and stimulating environments to maintain learner’s interest, and allowing them to work beyond their comfort zones→ develop skills knowledge and understanding. At the same time, giving learners the liberty of choosing the types of tasks they wish to engage in. As mentioned above, for effectiveness to be maximized, we need to be flexible. Having said that, flexibility in making the learners feel empowered and attachment over their learning experiences. Only when the learners are utilized with sound learning designs, can they create meaningful learning experiences and deliver greater beneficial outcomes.

There is a need to strike a balance when design learning. Moderation is the word. It’s like cooking; adding to much salt makes the dish salty; too much consideration to nutrition, makes it boring and unappetizing. Same thing, if we are too concerned over the resources/tools used, we’ll end up getting too carried away and neglect the other important aspects. Hence it is definitely important to strike an equilibrium.

From the readings, we understand the 4 main types of designs.
(1) Rule-based
- Learners are expected a apply a set of standard procedures to achieve an outcome.
- E.g. math algorithm problems where learners are expected to “abide by the rules”, follow a standard formula in order to achieve the end result.

(2) Incident-based
- The interaction between the learner and events.
- Similar to a consequential thought process.
- Learners participate in activities that require them to reflect and think about their actions/next step with regard to an event.
- E.g. many times during exams, to test our understanding and knowledge, we are given real life scenarios to apply the concepts that we are taught in during curriculum time.

(3) Strategy-based
- Using strategic planning by providing learners with sample tasks, answers, examples etc.

(4) Role-based
- Through the assumption of roles applied to real-life settings (role-playing), learners acquire skills and understanding.
- E.g. in the previous modules I took before, such as NM2219, we were supposed to assume the role of a PR practitioner and were given a scenario where we are supposed to act upon based on our understanding to public relations and crisis management. Through this, indirectly we are learning the skills/knowledge.

Yup. That’s pretty much what’s from the lecture and readings. Though pretty comprehensible, I still have my doubts. In one of the readings, the author mentioned, constructivists and cognitivists, where the former pedagogical focus is task-oriented, is oriented to designs and discovery and learn by building on their own mental structures when interacting with an environment, whereas, the latter’s pedagogical focus is on processing, and transmission of information through communication, explanation etc.

They seemed so familiar! Pretty confused by these 2 concepts actually. But all in all, this topic about the design methods, types and all is comprehensible. I’m sure it will help me design learning better in future ((:

Week 2: Assignment TWO

::Understand the theories ::

For this week, we learnt 3 different concepts.

Behaviorism
In a nutshell, behaviorism involves shaping the learner's behavior to get the outcome the educator wants and providing reinforcements/punishments. By providing reinforcement, the educator hopes that the learner will repeat the same behavior again, whereas for punishment, it deters the learner from making the same "mistake".

In my perspective, this concept is almost authoritative. We as the learners are treated as passive beings and are expected to learn what we are taught, blindly. When I say blindly, it means no qualms/questions about what we are taught, whether they are right or wrong. But this is terribly wrong. Afterall curiosity fuels improvement! How can we improve if we don't question? I think this doesn't apply to the real world (or if it does, to a small extend). Behaviorism takes the assumption of human beings being conceived as not to have any freewill, and that we are of no difference to animals. YES. Learners are regarded as passive beings but they are not totally passive. Human beings constantly question about what we are taught and sometimes, we go to the extent of rebelling again what we are told to do.

This brings me to using reinforcements and punishments. Because the learners do not abide to what they are taught/told, reinforcements and punishments come into play. We are rewarded to reinforce the "right" attitude and are punished when we make mistakes. It is good that we are rewarded for what was rightly done/conformed to. Too much emphasis is given to rewards and punishments. For instance, when a child is rewarded whenever he colors a page of drawing, in a long run, he will understand that coloring comes with rewards. This attitude adopted undermines the true meaning to learning such that the child will not be able to understand the passion to coloring/drawing.

Yet, isn't this what is happening right now? As a child grows up, when he/she does the right thing, his/her parents will reward her by giving her treats, praises, smiles etc. When he/she make mistakes or fall below the expectation of adults, he/she will be frowned upon. This is the way every child grows up by learning. Take for example, our mindset towards learning is somewhat wraped. One real life scenario from the behaviorist point of view would be us as students studying just so that we would graduate with a degree and possibly get a good job after that. We take modules because we are rewarded with credits and should we fail to meet the necessary requirements to pass, the modular credits would be forfeited (our punishment to deter us from not studying hard). Through this simple example, we can see the characteristics of behaviorism being exhibited. This brings us to the point of human beings being selfish! Which is another interesting point that Wortham brought up. Our selfishness lead us to the pursuit of our dissatisfaction of our unlimited wants.

Cognitivism
Next, to the concept of cognitivism..
In simple words, cognitivism has got to do with people's own internal representations of the world. It assumes that people have their views of the world, and those views of the world are built as concepts, beliefs or theories internally. When they make sense of the world, they build new representations and these are crucial to help someone learn.

Interestingly, one point that distinguishes behaviorism from cognitivism is the amount of control the educator is "entitled" to (i.e. the influences of active Vs passive learners). In cognitivism, the educator has lesser control on the learner. Because teaching is less direct and the learners themselves have already formed their individual representations of the world, the educator has little control in shaping learner's behavior or exercising their authority. At the same time, being active learners', they have an intrinsic behavior to learn. Whereas from the behaviorist point of view, learners are no different from animals and are thought to learn as they are taught without going against their educators. Hence giving the eduators more control over the learners.

In my opinion, there is no absolute in this world. Not everything is black or white, yes or no. Indeed, there are the boundaries that are indefinite and these are the grey areas where it depends on individuals. Human minds are not as simple as we think it is, the mechanisms and workings of it defines how differently every individual thinks and create representations of different issues.

Also, Wortham also mentioned one point which I mentioned previously, that extrinsic reinforcement can undermine the motivation to learn by ruining learners' innate desire to learn, to be curious and to want to think of new ways of making sense of the world. Instead, the educator can "encourage" learners with the right behavior through usage of reinforcement as an aid, not a necessity. Here, innovation and creativity come to play. By not forcing their way through on the learners, and instead, allow their creative juices to flow freely, cognitivism encourages and paves way for innovation. That's when thinking out of the box comes in. In hue with this, educators need to provide a conducive environment for the learners to improve learners' thinking ability.


Socioculturalism
The final concept, socioculturalism. As the name defines, this concept talks about learning as a collective behavior. It assumes not only the responsibility of the individuals as units affected in the learning process, but sees learning as a part of whole larger system. It rest upon many different assumptions from the previous 2 concepts, behaviorism and cognitivism.

For instance, it adopts the belief of learning as something that takes place across systems that include individuals, use of tools and objects. They are all interdependent on each other.

One real life scenario that can be applied to this concept can be decision making problems. For instance, problems concerning major decisions such as abortion, marriage etc. It involves not only the individual but also the culture, language as communication tool, environment etc etc. Take for example, the decision of planning a wedding, responsibility does not rest upon the couple but also their families, the wedding planner, the preparations etc etc. Only when all these elements "join forces", then will learning take place.

That being said, it is true that all things happened collectively/are learned on a collective basis? I think that this is only true to a certain extent. It is human nature to be selfish and only when we share common beliefs, common passions, common behavior, are we willingly to be a part of this collective community.


Finally, a conclusion for this week's learning. The 3 different concepts is akin to the growing stage of a person. From childhood through adolescence to adulthood. Behaviorism - Cognitivism - Socioculturalism. Of course, learning doesn not end when one reaches adulthood. Learning is a lifelong process. What i mean is... as a child, we are seen as helpless and unable to thrive on our own. Our parents acting as our aids, introduced us to the learning process. We were taught to adopt behavior and rightful expectations that conform to the values of our families, societies and culture. Till adolescence, when the child grows up to a young adult, he starts to have the ability to make sense of the real world. He starts to develop his own thinking. Usually different from his authorities/educators. That is when cognitivism comes into play. This is also often the reason before parents-children fights during teen years. The young adult want to be able to make decisions, to experience life/learning himself and having an authority forcing his way on him results in conflicts. And when this young adult matures into an adult, that is when problems concerning major decisions also happen. At this stage of socioculturalism, the adult has to realized that "no man is an island".

By learning these theories, I think at the end of the day, it is very much a mixture of different theories to fit into different context. As mentioned in the lecture, they serve more of a guide when we are in different situations. Afterall, there is no hard and fast rule when it comes to applying them to the real world.

Yupp. Those are my thoughts for this week's learning. Abit of information overload actually. But I hope they are useful to you ((:

I commented on:
http://xy-elearning.blogspot.com/

and read:
http://nm3204.blogspot.com/
http://32043204.blogspot.com/ and
http://www.jk-nm3204.blogspot.com/.